Wildlife parasitology: sample collection and processing, diagnostic constraints, and methodological challenges in terrestrial carnivores.

Wild terrestrial carnivores play a crucial role as reservoir, maintenance, and spillover hosts for a wide parasite variety. They may harbor, shed, and transmit zoonotic parasites and parasites of veterinary importance for domestic hosts. Although wild carnivores are globally distributed and comprise many different species, some living in close proximity to human settlements, only a few studies have investigated parasites of wild terrestrial carnivores using non-specific techniques. Access to samples of wild carnivores may be challenging as some species are protected, and others are secretive, possibly explaining the data paucity. Considering the importance of wild carnivores' health and ecological role, combined with the lack of specific diagnostic methodologies, this review aims to offer an overview of the diagnostic methods for parasite investigation in wild terrestrial carnivores, providing the precise techniques for collection and analysis of fecal, blood, and tissue samples, the environmental impact on said samples, and the limitations researchers currently face in analyzing samples of wild terrestrial carnivores. In addition, this paper offers some crucial information on how different environmental factors affect parasite detection postmortem and how insects can be used to estimate the time of death with a specific highlight on insect larvae. The paper contains a literature review of available procedures and emphasizes the need for diagnostic method standardization in wild terrestrial carnivores.

Molecular identification, risk factor assessment, and phylogenetic analysis of tick-borne pathogens in symptomatic and asymptomatic cattle from South-Eastern Iran.

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) represent a substantial threat to cattle globally, exerting adverse impacts on production, health, and economic viability. This study delves into the prevalence and implications of TTBPs in cattle sourced from resource-limited smallholder livestock farms situated in southeastern Iran, proximate to Afghanistan and Pakistan. Blood and tick specimens were systematically collected from a cohort of 230 cattle, comprising 150 asymptomatic and 80 symptomatic individuals. Genomic DNA isolated from blood samples underwent rigorous examination for the presence of key TBPs, including Anaplasma marginale, A. phagocytophilum, A. bovis, A. centrale, Babesia bigemina, and Theileria annulata, utilizing multiple genetic markers. Nucleotide sequence analysis facilitated the reconstruction of phylogenetic relationships. The study also evaluated various potential risk factors, such as clinical status, gender, age, breed, tick infestation, and management practices, to elucidate their associations with TTBPs. Among the cattle cohort, a staggering 87.8% (202/230) tested positive for at least one pathogen. Prevalence statistics encompassed A. marginale (72.2%), T. annulata (68.3%), A. phagocytophilum/A. platys-like complex (66.1%), A. centrale (16.7%), B. bigemina (10.0%), and A. bovis (6.1%). Remarkably, mixed infections involving two, three, and four pathogens were detected in 23%, 52.1%, and 2.2% of animals, respectively. Notably, all asymptomatic cattle were positive for at least one TBP. Tick infestation was observed in 62.2% (143/230) of cattle, predominantly caused by Hyalomma anatolicum (82.5%), Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus (13.1%), and R. sanguineus sensu lato (4.4%). Risk factors linked to TBPs encompassed tick infestation, older age, and crossbred animals. Clinical presentations among symptomatic cattle encompassed fever, anemia, weight loss, anorexia, jaundice, and enlarged superficial lymph nodes. This study underscores the pivotal role of asymptomatic carriers in the propagation of TTBPs within endemic regions. Furthermore, it emphasizes the potential for the implementation of molecular diagnostics to unmask subclinical infections, thereby affording the opportunity for targeted interventions aimed at ameliorating the burden of TTBPs in resource-constrained smallholder dairy farms.

Molecular identification of hemoparasites in ixodid ticks in Iran.

A total of 386 ticks were processed in order to investigate the occurrence of selected tick transmitted pathogens (i.e., Theileria, Babesia, Hepatozoon and Cytauxzoon) in ixodid ticks in six provinces of Iran (East Azerbaijan, Gilan, Kermanshah, Khuzestan, Sistan & Baluchestan and Tehran). Ticks identified as Dermacentor marginatus, Hyalomma aegyptium, Hy. anatolicum, Hy. asiaticum, Hy. marginatum, Ixodes ricinus, Rhipicephalus annulatus and R. sanguineus sensu lato were collected from sheep and cattle. Conventional PCR and sequencing results revealed DNA of Theileria ovis in three R. sanguineus sensu lato pools and one D. marginatus pool from sheep in Kermanshah and East Azerbaijan, T. annulata in one Hy. asiaticum pool from cattle in Kermanshah, and He. canis in an individual female Hy. aegyptium in Kermanshah. Data herein indicate the role of R. sanguineus complex and D. marginatus in the epidemiology of ovine theileriosis in western and northwestern Iran. Potential role of Hyalomma aegyptium in the transmission of He. canis is discussed. Considering non-principled movement of livestock across the country and increasing reports about the resistance of ticks to common acaricides, test-and-treatment of infected livestock, vaccination of the livestock against endemic tick-borne pathogens, and the use of non-chemical tick management strategies are recommended.

Molecular detection and identification of hemotropic Mycoplasma species in dogs and their ectoparasites in Iran.

Hemotropic Mycoplasma species are vector-borne bacteria that attach and grow on the surface of erythrocytes in various mammals, yet reports of canine hemoplasmosis in Iran are scarce. The aim of this study was molecular detection and identification of hemoplasmas in the blood of dogs (n = 370) from five provinces of Iran and ectoparasites infesting them including Ctenocephalides canis and Pulex irritans fleas, Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato ticks, Heterodoxus spiniger lice and Hippobosca longipennis keds. Hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. pathogens were detected using genus-specific conventional PCRs, and subsequently identified using species-specific PCRs for Mycoplasma haemocanis (Mhc), and Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum (CMhp). Sanger sequencing was then performed to confirm the species. Correlation of infection and risk factors (geographical area, keeping condition, body condition, sex, age, ectoparasite infestation) were analyzed. In total, 210 dogs (56.7%) were tested PCR-positive for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. Species-specific PCR and sequencing revealed infection with Mhc in 17.8%, with CMhp in 7.02% and co-infection in 31.9% of dogs. Flea infestation, poor body condition, and being older than 3-years-old correlated with hemoplasmosis. In ectoparasites, DNA of hemoplasmas were detected only in fleas i.e. Mhc in P. irritans, CMhp in P. irritans and C. canis, and co-infection in C. canis. To our knowledge, this is the first large-scale molecular epidemiology study of canine hemoplasmosis in Iran. Considering the high prevalence of canine hemoplasmosis all over the country including potentially zoonotic CMhp, effective ectoparasite control strategies, regular examination of dogs, successful chemoprophylaxis and public awareness strategies are advocated.

Impaired efficacy of fenbendazole and ivermectin against intestinal nematodes in adult horses in Iran.

This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of fenbendazole and ivermectin on strongyles and Parascaris sp. infecting adult riding horses in three regions with different climates. During 2021 and 2022 fecal specimens were randomly collected from 483 horses older than three years in 31 equestrian clubs in Hamedan (n = 217), Yazd (n = 146) and Tabriz cities (n = 120). Eggs were counted by McMaster technique, and the strongyle larvae were identified using coproculture, PCR and sequencing. Horses with strongyles and Parascaris egg counts ≥150 were enrolled in fecal egg count reduction (FECR) examination following treatment with ivermectin or fenbendazole. In total, 26.5% of examined horses were positive with at least one parasite. Infection rates varied in three cities i.e., 25.8% in Hamedan, 28.8% in Yazd, 25% in Tabriz. Fifty-seven horses had FECR measured. FECR below <90% was observed for IVM-strongyle in two horses in Tabriz, for FBZ-strongyle in two horses in Tabriz and two horses in Hamedan, for IVM-Parascaris in one horse in all three cities, and for FBZ-Parascaris in one horse in Yazd. Furthermore, FECR 90-100% was observed in IVM-Parascaris and FBZ -Parascaris groups in Tabriz. Data herein presented demonstrate different degrees of resistance of strongyles and Parascaris infecting horses in Iran against both ivermectin and fenbendazole. Since non-principled use of anthelminthics is common among horse owners, urgency of test-and-treatment strategy should be educated and implemented by policy-making organizations. Evaluating efficacy of different anthelminthics and choosing the most effective treatment in each region is suggested.

Eimeria leuckarti in equid coprolites from the Sassanid Era (2nd-6th century CE) excavated in Chehrabad Salt Mine archaeological site, Iran.

OBJECTIVE: This study reports coccidian oocysts in an equid coprolite dated to the Sassanid Empire (2nd-6th century CE) recovered in Chehrabad Salt Mine archaeological site, Iran. METHODS: Between 2015 and 2017, an archaeoparasitological investigation led to the discovery of an equid coprolite in the Chehrabad Salt Mine archeological site, (Douzlakh), western Iran. Samples were rehydrated using trisodium phosphate solution and were examined by light microscopy. RESULTS: Seven oocysts of Eimeria leuckarti (Flesch, 1883) were identified; they were in various stages of sporulation. CONCLUSION: This is the first report of ancient coccidian oocysts from equids. The importance of this observation is discussed, and current knowledge of eimeriid oocysts at archaeological sites is reviewed. SIGNIFICANCE: The observations of E. leuckarti increases current knowledge of parasite biodiversity in ancient Iran when it rested along the Silk Road, a network of trade routes connecting the East and West that was central to economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between these regions, and to livestock movement that could contribute to the transmission of the parasites from/to other regions. LIMITATIONS: The contextual information about animal species present in and around the Salt Mine during its working periods, including Achaemenid dynasty (6th to 4th century BCE) and Sassanid era (2nd to 6th century CE), is very limited and does not allow secure conclusions regarding the host origin of the coprolites. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Application of molecular biology tools to identify the correct host origin of the coprolites and to detect more parasite species is advocated.

Lungworms of Non-Ruminant Terrestrial Mammals and Humans in Iran.

With over 300 terrestrial and aquatic mammalian species, Iran is considered a country with an ample mastofauna. Although many studies have assessed the distribution of gastrointestinal helminth parasites in animals and humans in Iran, lungworms have not received adequate attention. Following a previous article in which we reviewed the diversity and prevalence of lungworm infections in pastoral and wild ruminants of Iran, this report compiles the available scientific information about the occurrence of lungworms in non-ruminant mammals and humans from 1980 to 2022 to provide insights into the epidemiology of these infections. International and national scientific databases were searched, and twenty-six articles in peer-reviewed journals, one conference paper, and one D.V.M. thesis were included in the study. In total, 10 species belonging to seven genera, including Dictyocaulus, Deraiophoronema, Protostrongylus, Crenosoma, Eucoleus, Aelurostrongylus, and Metastrongylus, were reported in the respiratory tract or feces of humans, domestic animals (i.e., camels, equids, dogs, and cats), and wildlife species (i.e., hedgehogs, wild boars, and hares). Most of the studies (22/28) were performed using post-mortem examinations. The overall prevalence of respiratory nematode infection varied according to animal species in camels (14.83%), equids (13.31%), dogs (5%), wild boars (45.66%), hedgehogs (42.57%), and hares (1.6%). In addition, pulmonary capillariasis caused by Eucoleus aerophilus was reported in a 9 year old child. The prevalence of lungworm species in domestic camels, equids, and dogs, combined with a lack of labeled anthelmintic products, supports the need to improve our understanding of these important nematode parasites and inform the development of sustainable control strategies. From a zoo and wildlife medicine point of view, there is a shortage of information about the presence and prevalence of lungworm infections in the majority of mammalian species, pending epidemiological studies that integrate classical parasitology and molecular methods.

Synthesis and Clinical Examination of Novel Formulations of Ivermectin, Albendazole and Niclosamide for the Treatment of Equine Gastrointestinal Helminthoses.

Background: This study aimed to develop new complex preparations of ivermectin, niclosamide and albendazole based on solid-phase mechanochemical technology, and to evaluate their efficacy against equine nematodosis and cestodosis. Methods: Novel formulation of antiparasitic paste were prepared using joint mechano-chemical treatment of ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg bodyweight; BW), niclosamide (10 mg/kg BW) and albendazole (3, 5, 10 mg/kg BW) substances with polyvinylpyrrolidone and arabinogalactan. For the evaluation of activity of different doses of formulations against gastrointestinal tract helminths a total of 151 adult horses of the Novoaltai breed weighing 450-500 kg naturally infected with strongyles (>150 egg per gram of faeces, EPG), Parascaris spp. (>20 EPG) and Anoplocephala spp. (>10 EPG) were selected. Antiparasitic pastes were orally fed to the horses and faecal egg count reduction counts were compared prior to and 14 days after the treatment. Results: Pastes with mechanically modified ivermectin showed 91.4-100% efficacy against strongyles and Parascaris. Pastes with modified albendazole and niclosamide were also effective against Anoplocephala in all tested dosages i.e. 78.6-100%. In particular, treatment with two formulations containing i) 0.2 mg ivermectin, 10 mg albendazole, 10 mg niclosamide, and ii) 0.2 mg ivermectin, 3 mg albendazole showed 100% efficacy against strongyles, Parascaris and Anoplocephala. Conclusion: Solid-phase mechanochemical technology could be applied in equine anthelminthics production. It is suggested that future studies focus on plasma concentration-time profile of these highly effective pastes.

Biliary parascarosis in a foal.

Migration of Ascaris lumbricoides through the papilla of Vater in humans, and entry into the biliary tree, is well-recognised. Ascaris suum and Toxocara vitulorum have been recovered from the liver of swine and buffalo. We necropsied a Persian Kurdish filly at age 6 months, weighing ∼100 kg. Death evidently was caused by oleander (Nerium oleander) intoxication. An 8-cm adult male Parascaris was found at the lobar-left hepatic bile duct junction. We suggest that the nematode entered anteriorly into the hepatic tree, via the duodenum, major duodenal papilla, bile duct, left hepatic duct and finally the lobar duct. Considering the brief 4-h elapsed time between death and necropsy, and the 18-cm distance from the major duodenal papilla to the location of the parasite, we conclude that entry into the biliary tree likely occurred ante-mortem. We advise consideration of Parascaris infection in differential diagnosis of equine hepatic and pancreatic dysfunction.

Natural infection with Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Sarcocystis species in domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) in Iran.

Pigeons are common birds around the world and may act as intermediate hosts of the tissue cyst-forming apicomplexan parasites Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Sacrocystis spp. This study aimed to provide an overview on the prevalence of and exposure to these parasites in Iranian domestic rock pigeon (Columba livia domestica) through molecular, serological and histopathological examination. Blood and tissue samples (i.e., brain, heart, gizzard, neck, thigh, and pectoral muscles) were taken from 100 pigeons. Sera were screened by agglutination tests for detection of anti- T. gondii and N. caninum antibodies, genomic DNA from tissue samples were assessed by respective species-specific PCRs, and histopathological examination of tissues was carried out. A seroprevalence of 45 % to anti-T. gondii and 35 % to anti-N. caninum IgG was recorded. PCR detected T. gondii DNA in 28 pigeons. Sacrocystis spp. was detected in one animal, but sequencing of the 28 S rRNA gene product did not reveal the identity of the species. Histopathology revealed myocarditis, myositis, and gliosis in the heart, skeletal muscles, and brain, respectively. No Sarcocystis tissue-cysts were detected, but T. gondii tissue cyst-like structures in the brain (i.e., 4 %) and heart (i.e., 3 %) were found by histology. Data reported herein demonstrate that pigeons from Iran are infected with tissue cyst-forming apicomplexans, particularly T. gondii. Since domestic pigeons are in close contact with human populations, and consumption of their meat and egg is popular in different societies, control strategies for minimizing the risk of infection in both pigeons and humans are suggested.

Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii infections in one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) in central desert of Iran.

The protozoan parasite Neospora caninum infects carnivores as definitive and a wide range of mammals as intermediate hosts. This parasite is regarded as an important cause of abortion in cattle worldwide, causing significant economic losses. Although there is serological evidence of infection in Old World camelids, the significance of N. caninum in these animal species is still poorly understood. The aim of this study was to use molecular and histological methods to detect N. caninum in the blood and tissues of 100 slaughtered one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Iran. For this, genomic DNA was extracted from blood, brain, portal lymph node and liver of the camels, and nested-PCR assay followed by sequencing were performed. Besides, paraffin-embedded tissue sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and studied microscopically. In addition, immunohistochemical staining for N. caninum was attempted on brain samples with positive PCR results. All animals were tested for antibodies against N. caninum and Toxoplasma gondii by whole tachyzoite-agglutination tests. N. caninum DNA was detected in blood, brain, and portal lymph node, but not in the liver of two (2%) camels. Histopathological examination revealed cysts resembling N. caninum in brain samples of one of these camels; however, immunohistochemical staining for N. caninum and T. gondii did not allow a morphological identification. IgG antibodies to N. caninum and T. gondii were detected in 36% and 35% of the camels, respectively. This study provides the first insight into direct detection of N. caninum in C. dromedarius in Iran. Further molecular studies on aborted fetuses, stillborn animals and cases of perinatal mortality are needed to understand the possible involvement of N. caninum in cases of reproductive failure. As the definitive hosts of N. caninum are domestic and wild canids, producers should be advised to monitor and limit exposure of their camelids to these species and their feces.

Chewing lice of wild birds in Iran: new data and a checklist of avian louse species reported in Iran.

Between September 2019 and December 2023, a total of 612 wild birds representing 16 orders, 33 families, 60 genera, and 78 species from nine provinces of Iran with different climates namely Hamedan (n = 54), Sistan-va-Baluchestan (n = 372), Kerman (n = 73), South Khorasan (n = 52), Mazandaran (n = 7), Chaharmahal-va-Bakhtiari (n = 2), Gilan (n = 2), Golestan (n = 18), North Khorasan (n = 9), and Razavi Khorasan (n = 23) were examined for chewing lice infestation. Naked eye examination revealed that 58 birds (9.5%) were infested with at least one chewing louse species. Collected lice specimens belonged to 28 species from the families Philopteridae, Menoponidae and Laemobothriidae including Strigiphilus strigis (n = 55, 15.6%), Falcolipeurus quadripustulatus (n = 41, 11.6%), Craspedorrhynchus platystomus (n = 40, 11.3%), Colpocephalum turbinatum (n = 36, 10.2%), Laemobothrion maximum (n = 25, 7.1%), Nosopon lucidum (n = 20, 5.6%), Degeeriella fulva (n = 18, 5.1%), Colpocephalum eucarenum (n = 16, 4.5%), Laemobothrion vulturis (n = 15, 4.2%), Anaticola crassicornis (n = 13, 3.7%), Craspedorrhynchus aquilinus (n = 9, 2.5%), Degeeriella fusca (n = 7, 2.0%), Aegypoecus trigonoceps (n = 7, 2.0%), Quadraceps obscurus (n = 6, 1.7%), Colpocephalum impressum (n = 6, 1.7%), Trinoton querquedulae (n = 6, 1.7%), Colpocephalum heterosoma (n = 5, 1.4%), Colpocephalum nanum (n = 5, 1.4%), Lunaceps holophaeus (n = 4, 1.1%), Quadraceps spp. (n = 4, 1.1%), Actornithophilus uniseriatus (n = 2, 0.6%), Nosopon chanabense (n = 2, 0.6%), Actornithophilus cornutus (n = 1, 0.3%), Cuclotogaster heterographus (n = 1, 0.3%), Falcolipeurus suturalis (n = 1, 0.3%), Laemobothrion atrum (n = 1, 0.3%), Colpocephalum gypsi (n = 1, 0.3%), and Rallicola cuspidatus (n = 1, 0.3%). All of these species except six, i.e., Trinoton spp., C. aquilinus, L. vulturis, L. maximum, C. impressum, C. turbinatum, and C. heterographus are recorded for the first time from Iran. This study is the largest epidemiological study to date performed in the country. Data reported herein contribute to our knowledge about diversity of avian chewing lice from wild birds in Iran. In this paper, an updated checklist of louse species reported from Iran according to their avian hosts is presented.

The Prevalence and Control of Lungworms of Pastoral Ruminants in Iran.

Lungworms of the genera Dictyocaulus, Muellerius, Protostrongylus, and Cystocaulus are common helminths of domestic and wild ruminants with substantial veterinary and economic importance. Several studies have assessed the presence and prevalence of lungworm infections in ruminants in Iran. This report compiles the available scientific information about the occurrence of lungworms in domestic and wild ruminants in Iran between 1931 and June 2022 to give an insight into their epidemiology, and where possible to describe drug treatment efficacy. For this purpose, national and international scientific databases were searched. Overall, 54 publications comprising 33 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 8 conference papers, and 13 dissertations were evaluated regarding prevalence data; and an additional 4 peer-reviewed articles were evaluated regarding drug efficacy. Seven species of lungworms, namely Dictyocaulus filaria, Dictyocaulus viviparus, Dictyocaulus eckerti, Protostrongylus rufescens, Protostrongylus raillietti, Muellerius capillaris, and Cystocaulus ocreatus have been recorded from different ruminant hosts in Iran. Thirty-three studies conducted on small ruminant (sheep and goat) lungworms reported prevalences of lungworm infection of 11.6%, 45.81% and 66.29% using abattoir meat inspection, Baermann technique and fecal flotation, respectively. Eight studies conducted on large ruminants (cattle and water buffalo) reported prevalences of infection of 14.83%, 13.98% and 5% using abattoir meat inspection, the Baermann technique and fecal flotation, respectively. The prevalence of infection in wild ruminants was variable across examined species; 38% in urial, 37% in wild goats, 5% in goitered gazelles and 67% in red deer, in addition to a single case report in roe deer. There are few contemporary studies assessing the efficacy of currently available broad-spectrum anthelmintic compounds against lungworms in Iran. The high prevalence of multiple lungworm species in Iran, combined with a lack of information about drug efficacy, supports the need to improve the understanding of these important nematode parasites and inform the development of sustainable control strategies. The aim of this review and meta-analysis is to provide a baseline for future conventional parasitology and next generation molecular epidemiological studies of lungworm infection in pastoral ruminants in Iran.

Molecular detection and identification of Bartonella species in cats from Hamedan and Kermanshah, Western Iran.

Bartonella species are emerging vector-borne zoonotic pathogens which infect a wide range of domestic and wild animals as well as humans. Cats are the primary reservoir hosts for several zoonotic Bartonella spp., the most common being B. henselae the causative agent of cat scratch disease. Despite the important role of cats in the epidemiology of bartonellosis, there is limited information about the prevalence and species infecting cats in Iran. The aim of present study was molecular detection and identification of Bartonella species in cats from two western provinces Hamedan and Kermanshah. From December 2018 to February 2021, 87 cats (n = 26 from Hamedan, n = 61 from Kermanshah) were examined clinically, their bodies were searched for collection of ectoparasites, and cephalic or saphenous blood specimens were collected. Genomic DNA was extracted from blood specimens and conventional PCRs targeting the rpoB, and ITS regions of Bartonella spp. were performed. Positive samples were sequenced and analysed phylogenetically. Bartonella DNA was detected in 11/87 cats (12.64 %). Sequencing results revealed the presence of B. henselae in cats from Hamedan, and B. clarridgeiae and B. henselae in cats from Kermanshah. A statistical association between cat origin and the prevalence of Bartonella spp. was observed in the studied population. This study confirms for the first time the circulation of Bartonella spp. in cats in two western Iranian provinces. Prevention strategies e.g. ectoparasites control, and regular examination of pet and urban cats are suggested for minimising Bartonella infection in cats and subsequently in humans.

Development of a control strategy towards elimination of Trypanosoma evansi infection (surra) in camels in Africa.

With an increasing worldwide population that presently exceeds 38 million, camels are important source of meat, milk, and transportation of goods, in many regions of the world. Camels are particularly critical in the northern parts of Africa, above the tsetse belt. However, camel breeding areas are expanding into southern areas, under the pressures of global warming, leading to increasing risk of acquiring parasitic infections in these non-traditional ecotypes. Common biting flies (tabanids, stomoxyine flies, and Hippobosca camelina) act as mechanical vectors, resulting in exposure to trypanosomosis (Trypanosoma evansi; Surra) and high camel morbidity and mortality. In these regions, complicating infections with other Trypanosoma may also occur, particularly Trypanosoma vivax. In many modern camel-breeding areas, human populations are living under political upheaval (terrorism, riots), poverty, and precarity (drought, climate modification). Hence, control and/or elimination of Surra in camels would be beneficial to the economies of these populations. Due to the relatively straightforward epidemiology (single parasite with seasonal transmission in a single host species), control of Surra in Africa is affordable and should be based on implementing: (1) national veterinary services capabilities; (2) efficient diagnosis and control methods; (3) joint integrated control of Surra, gastrointestinal helminthoses (mainly haemonchosis), and sarcoptic mange. We propose that methods to control two economically-critical disease problems, gastrointestinal parasitosis and sarcoptic mange, will support improved Surra control in camels. Aided by decision-makers and donors, elimination of Surra could improve camel health and productivity, and stabilize camel-rearing in regions of the world that suffer from political instability and global warming pressures.

Epidemiology and genetic characteristics of tick-borne bacteria in dromedary camels of the world.

This review presents updated knowledge on the main tick-borne bacteria infecting one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) around the world. Camels are increasingly the subject of several scientific investigations, showing that they are receptive and carriers of several zoonotic bacteria. An appraisal is also given of the relative public health importance of these bacterial infections according to One Health concept. Microscopic, serologic and molecular findings are appropriately generated in order to exploit epidemiological data, and phylogeographic specificities associated to each vector-borne bacterium. Indeed, camels and their ticks harbour similar species and genotypes of pathogenic bacteria commonly identified in other animals, e.g., Anaplasma spp.,Ehrlichia spp., Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii, Bartonella spp. and hemotrophic mycoplasmas. This evidence suggests an epidemiological role of camels in the spread of these pathogens in their natural habitats. However, these infections are commonly asymptomatic in camels resulting in underestimation of the impact of these infections. Furthermore, camels have recently been proven to have their own specific unclassified strains, such as Candidatus Anaplasma camelii and Candidatus Bartonella camelii, implying that possible interactions may lead to the emergence of pathogenic and zoonotic bacteria. In camel-rearing areas of the world, spatial and temporal spread of these infections, due to climatic and ecological changes and human activities such as development projects and urbanization, is expected. Hence the data presented herein provides a basis for strategic frameworks for the research and the development of novel diagnosis and control strategies worldwide, which are needed to protect camels, other livestock, and people in contact with dromedaries from threats that arthropod-borne pathogens can pose.

Diagnosis of animal trypanosomoses: proper use of current tools and future prospects.

Reliable diagnostic tools are needed to choose the appropriate treatment and proper control measures for animal trypanosomoses, some of which are pathogenic. Trypanosoma cruzi, for example, is responsible for Chagas disease in Latin America. Similarly, pathogenic animal trypanosomoses of African origin (ATAO), including a variety of Trypanosoma species and subspecies, are currently found in Africa, Latin America and Asia. ATAO limit global livestock productivity and impact food security and the welfare of domestic animals. This review focusses on implementing previously reviewed diagnostic methods, in a complex epizootiological scenario, by critically assessing diagnostic results at the individual or herd level. In most cases, a single diagnostic method applied at a given time does not unequivocally identify the various parasitological and disease statuses of a host. These include "non-infected", "asymptomatic carrier", "sick infected", "cured/not cured" and/or "multi-infected". The diversity of hosts affected by these animal trypanosomoses and their vectors (or other routes of transmission) is such that integrative, diachronic approaches are needed that combine: (i) parasite detection, (ii) DNA, RNA or antigen detection and (iii) antibody detection, along with epizootiological information. The specificity of antibody detection tests is restricted to the genus or subgenus due to cross-reactivity with other Trypanosoma spp. and Trypanosomatidae, but sensitivity is high. The DNA-based methods implemented over the last three decades have yielded higher specificity and sensitivity for active infection detection in hosts and vectors. However, no single diagnostic method can detect all active infections and/or trypanosome species or subspecies. The proposed integrative approach will improve the prevention, surveillance and monitoring of animal trypanosomoses with the available diagnostic tools. However, further developments are required to address specific gaps in diagnostic methods and the sustainable control or elimination of these diseases.

Canine microfilaraemia in some regions of Iran.

BACKGROUND: Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens are vector-borne zoonotic parasites which affect mainly dogs and humans worldwide. In Iran, information about the distribution of those nematodes is scant in several regions. Therefore, we investigated the prevalence of these filarial parasites in stray dogs from five Iranian provinces where no information about these parasites is available. METHODS: Blood samples were collected from 344 stray dogs in five provinces of Iran (i.e. Mazandaran, Gilan, Esfahan, Qazvin and Loresan). The presence of microfilariae was assessed using direct smear, modified Knott's test, molecular detection of filarial DNA (cox1 gene) and Wolbachia endosymbiont of parasitic nematodes (ftsZ gene) by conventional PCR (cPCR). All of the PCR products were sequenced and phylogenetic analysis was performed. RESULTS: In total, 75 dogs (21.8%) were found to be positive for D. immitis by cPCR. Infection was detected in all provinces, with the highest prevalence in Gilan province (22/28; 78.6%). Acanthocheilonema reconditum was diagnosed in five dogs (1.4%) from three provinces (i.e. Esfahan, Mazandaran, Gilan). Two dogs were infected with both parasites and three were only infected with A. reconditum. Dirofilaria repens infection was not found in the examined population. Representative sequences of the D. immitis cox1 gene from dogs from the northern provinces (Mazandaran, Gilan, Qazvin) were grouped together and distinctly separate from the ones from western and central provinces (Lorestan and Esfahan), suggesting that different nematode populations are present in the country. CONCLUSION: The data reported herein fill existing gaps in knowledge about canine filarial infection in two Iranian provinces and record the highest prevalence of D. immitis ever reported in the country (i.e. 78.6%). A geographical review of the literature about Dirofilaria spp. and A. reconditum infections in dogs and humans has also been summarized, indicating that D. immitis and D. repens are distributed in 22 of 31 provinces in Iran, whereas A. reconditum is present in fewer regions. Effective control strategies are advocated for owned dogs, and a national program for the management of stray dogs is needed to minimize the risk of infection in animals and humans.

Detection and Genomic Characterization of Canine Circovirus in Iran.

Canine circovirus (CaCV) is a single-stranded DNA virus that globally circulates in dogs and wild carnivores. Although the pathogenic potential of the virus has not been fully understood yet, CaCV has been suggested to exacerbate the clinical course of other canine viral infections but also to circulate in dogs without clinical signs. In this study, we carried out real-time PCR assays to detect enteric pathogens from 156 canine rectal swabs collected from dogs without enteritis in 3 different regions in Iran. A total of 14 samples tested positive for CaCV and full-length genome sequences were obtained from 6 of the detected strains. Sequence and phylogenetic analyses showed that, despite the distance between the different sample collection sites, all Iranian CaCV strains were closely related and formed a separate clade from extant CaCVs. The present study shows that CaCV is circulating in non-diarrheic dogs in Iran, thus highlighting the need for further epidemiological investigations in Iranian domestic and wild carnivores.